Trudy Gold
Dr. Lopez and Other Conversos

Trudy Gold - Dr. Lopez and Other Conversos

- Well, good evening everyone from cold and gloomy London. Thank you very much, Wendy. And tonight I’m looking at Dr. Lopez and the Conversos. But really following on from what William was talking about yesterday, it’s important to put the Reformation in the context of Jewish history. The Jews never, of course, played any part whatsoever in the Reformation, but one of the main features of diaspora history is this. What on earth do you think made the Jews such a mercurial kind of people? A people who were used to, if you like, looking for the opportunities for survival? It was because all they could ever do is to react to the outside world. And the Reformation itself caused some profound changes for the Jews. Now, as you’ve obviously spent, we’ve spent a lot of time on England, you know that the Jews were expelled in 1290 and you know also where they went. The majority of them went to Poland. Some of them, of course, they first went to France, then through the German lands, some would’ve gone into Spain, which was gradually being reconquered by the Christians. And, of course, there were Jews at Henry VII’s court. There were three Italian musicians. That’s all we know about them. But to put it in the context of Jewish history and the Reformation, it’s important to remember that the Reformation brought with it incredible instability, particularly in England, because the British just couldn’t make up, the English king couldn’t really make up his mind what kind of country he wanted. And of course, this is one of the lovely stories of England and a Jew was involved. And that’s going to be over the story of Catherine of Aragon.

I’ve put up for you, his six wives. He’s probably the most famous king in English history for no other reason than he married six times. And I’m sure you all know as we go along the top line, that is Catherine of Aragon. Catherine, of course, was the daughter, the youngest daughter, of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. She was the aunt of Charles V, who was the most important man in the Catholic world. He was the Holy Roman Emperor, and the Pope was in his pocket. So important to remember this. Then you see Anne Boleyn, the mother of Elizabeth. Then Jane Seymour. Anne Boleyn was executed. Jane Seymour was the mother of his only son, Edward. But she died just after childbirth. Then Anne of Cleves on the bottom line, Anne of Cleves was a diplomatic marriage. The painting by Frans Hals gave her a very favourable light. He didn’t like what he saw and that marriage ended. And then he married the very young Catherine, Catherine Howard, who was the cousin of Anne Boleyn. And she was beheaded for infidelity. Was she? And then his last wife, Catherine Parr, she managed to survive him and then married the love of her life. But, of course, those of you who love the ifs and buts of history, they’re incredible stories. And in those six wives lies the bottom of the problem that made Britain into a Catholic, into a Protestant country. And as William told you yesterday, the problem was that his wife, Catherine, who had been previously engaged to his brother Arthur. Arthur died and that’s why Henry became, he became the heir to the throne. And the question was, has the marriage been consummated? When Henry wanted a divorce, he actually consulted rabbis.

What is the situation? They couldn’t come up with the formula he wanted. The problem was Henry wanted a divorce. He had a child by Catherine, but a girl. And in those days, it was believed that it was the woman who determined the sex of the child. So consequently, Catherine, having had many stillbirths, miscarriages, is past childbearing age. How do you divorce the queen who is from one of the most powerful families in Europe? Well, that was where the problem lay. He couldn’t obtain a divorce. Why? Because the Pope was very much under the control of Charles V, who is the nephew of Catherine. And in the end, it took the brilliant Thomas Cromwell to explain to the king, you can, if you like, divorce the Pope. And that is how Henry put England on the road to Protestantism. And as William explained yesterday, he wasn’t a Protestant. This is the point about Henry VIII. In 1521 after Luther had nailed his 95 Theses to the chapel in Wittenberg, Henry wrote a piece called “Defender of the Faith.” The reason he got a divorce, he wanted a divorce from Catherine, was to have a son. And his mistress was pregnant. The Tudor dynasty, remember, was incredibly insecure. His father, Henry VII, had really usurped the throne from Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. You know, it’s wonderful bringing together art and history. Those of you who know the play, “Richard III.” Of course Richard is one of the sublime villains of history. It was based on “The Chronicles of Hall and Holinshed,” which, of course, were written during the reign of Henry’s daughter, Elizabeth. There is no way that the Tudor dynasty is going to be shown in anything but the greatest light. So consequently, Richard III, who evidently was a relatively good king and a certainly a very good administrator in the north of England, they loved him.

He’s given this incredibly bad image. But the reality was the Tudors were a very bloody dynasty. Look just what happened to his wife. So the point is, it’s because of the succession. If you want to be romantic, you can talk about Anne Boleyn and the love affair. But what is much more important, because Henry had loads of love affairs, what is much more important is the succession. So he was a Catholic. Anne Boleyn though was very much a Reformer. And then Jane Seymour, Jane Seymour, who becomes his third wife, she was very much a Catholic sympathiser. So even in Henry’s domestic life, you’re going to have all these kind of tensions. Now, as far as the Reformation was concerned, Luther, because I promised William I’d talk a little bit about Martin Luther because William is a very wonderful general historian and he doesn’t like often veering into Jewish history. Now, when Luther came up with his 95 Theses. And remember when we talked about Martin Luther, it’s important the man could read, he could look at the corruption in the church. And the Bible is now being written in German. More and more people could read. He realises the iniquities of the Catholic Church, the selling of indulgences, et cetera, et cetera. So, and he said, of course the Jews haven’t converted because the Pope is the anti-Christ. When they understand me and my great teachings, of course the Jews would convert. And it’s incredibly important to Christendom that Jews do convert. And I’m going to be constantly referring to this theme as we wend our way in the next couple of weeks through English history, the notion of the Jews converting. Remember, the Protestants in particular are Bible reading.

They’re close to the Hebrew Bible, which they call the Old Testament. And only if the Jews convert and return to their own land can the Messiah come again. So it’s going to be very much tied up with Protestant thought. But there’s a problem with Luther. You see, the Jews didn’t convert. And it’s important to remember that Luther is such a revered figure in Christian circles. I remember going to an extraordinary meeting at the German Embassy for the anniversary of Luther’s birth, which ironically is the night of the 9th to 10th of November. And if you think about it, that is, of course, Kristallnacht. When they didn’t convert, he wrote some of the most appalling diatribes against the Jews. And I’m just going to read a little so you get the language, because those of you who have followed the lockdown will know that when we talked about the rise of Nazism, I said, the problem in Germany is you have the anti-Judaism both from the Lutherans in Germany and also from the Catholics. In the main, Protestantism is more lenient. But Lutheranism is the exception. And this is how the pamphlet begins. “What then shall we Christians do with this damned rejected race of Jews?” And he goes on to say, “Their synagogue and churches should be set on fire. Their homes should be broken down. They should be deprived of their prayer books and Talmuds in which such idolatry lies, cursing and blasphemy are taught. Fourthly, their rabbis must be forbidden under threat of death to teach anymore. Fifthly, passports and travelling privileges should be absolutely forbidden to the Jews, for they have no business in the rural districts, since they are not nobles.

They corrupt the peasantry. Sixthly, they ought to be stopped from usury. Seventhly, let the young and strong Jews be given the flail, the axe, the hoe, and the spade. Let them work the land. And if they won’t, we have to drive them away.” And this is how he finishes. “To sum up, dear princes and nobles, you have Jews in your domains. If this advice of mine does not suit you, then find a better one so that you and we may be free of this insufferable devilish burden.” And that’s from “Concerning the Jews and Their Lies” written in 1543. So it’s important to remember. It’s irrelevant to England at this stage, but I just wanted to set the record straight from William’s lecture yesterday. So Henry VIII is really, by inclination, a Catholic. However, he breaks away and becomes the supreme head of the Church of England. Now when he dies, the throne. Can we see the next slide please, Lauren? Yes. The much-wanted heir, very carefully tutored, brought up as a Protestant. In fact, his main advisor was the second husband of the last of his wives. He’s brought up as a Protestant, and it’s in his reign that the majority of the important Protestant Reforms continue. However, when he dies, he dies very young. He was a sickly boy. Look, he only lived to be 16 years old. The Protestant lords who wanted to keep power tried to put Lady Jane Grey on the throne. She only ruled for eight days because what they wanted was the children of the Tudors. And who was next in line but Mary Tudor? Can we see her picture please? Mary Tudor. Bloody Mary. Mary Tudor, who’d had a very, very, you know, a very, very unstable, unhappy life. Her mother, remember, her beloved mother had been locked up in a very nice stately home.

But she was denied access to her. She was a very pious Catholic. And when she finally takes the throne, who does she marry but her cousin, Philip II of Spain? He comes to England, but he very seldom visited her bed. And tragically she had a phantom pregnancy. A very sad, tragic creature, but also was determined. A very zealous Catholic. She was a true daughter of Isabella of Spain. And she was determined to bring Christianity, Catholicism, back to the people. And there were so many burnings during that reign. Don’t forget also, those of you who live in England, the nursery rhymes. “Mary, Mary, quite contrary, how does your garden grow?” Around this period, there are many nursery rhymes. That’s how, if you like, the satire of the people. Now she dies in 1558. During her reign, any Jew… And who were the Jews who would’ve been in England? They would have been converso merchants, Portuguese converso merchants. Remember, by the time you get to this reign, the 1550s, think about trade, think about mercantilism. These merchants would’ve been in London. At the most, there were a few dozen of them. They would outwardly have gone to the Portuguese church, but we know they were Jews. They were practising their Judaism in secret. And we also know that when Mary came to the throne, they got out because it was dangerous. This zealous Catholic. And then when, of course, she dies, who comes to the throne but the extraordinary Queen Elizabeth? Perhaps one of the greatest monarchs England has ever known.

Can we see her picture please? There, Elizabeth I. There are so many books on Elizabeth, so many films on Elizabeth. The great heroine who broke the Spanish Armada. And it’s important to remember now that we’re in a reign of a pragmatic sovereign. She goes for a kind of peace, a kind of Anglicanism, which, in a way, suits the English personality. And I think William was very funny yesterday when he said, you know, “There are archbishops who don’t even believe in God.” It was a pragmatic England. It was an England of compromise. But it’s important to remember that during this huge toing and froing of religion, can you imagine what it was like for the ordinary folk? We don’t know what they thought in their hearts and minds because they didn’t write it down. One of the problems, those of you who are historians will know that if you teach modern history or if you study modern history, we’ve got already too many sources. When you’re dealing with this period of history, we don’t really have enough. But what I do want to say is that there is quite a bewilderment of identity. And, Elizabeth’s reign. Elizabeth, by the way, was a very good scholar. Her reign also led to an upswing in scholarship and also, amongst extreme Protestants, a real interest in the Jews. Up until that time, any encounters that people would’ve had with Jews would’ve been the descendants of conversos. But there are a few clues. For example, Henry Ainsworth learnt from a Jew of Amsterdam. He was an important writer. And also there was an English scholar called Hugh Broughton. Can we see his picture, please? He’s very interesting, Hugh Broughton. I think he’s, yes, Hugh Broughton. His dates are 1569 to 1612. He was an English scholar. He was a theologian.

He’d been to Cambridge University and he’d studied with a French scholar called Antoine Chevallier, who was, in fact, he was a converted Jew who was a tutor in French and Hebrew to the future Elizabeth I when she was a girl. And he himself had studied Hebrew under Francois Vitelbo, who also was Hebraist. He’d been a lecturer in Paris. So it’s important to remember that these are the intellectual Humanist contacts. And people like Hugh Broughton, he was a very important figure. Now, Chevallier, who was the tutor to Elizabeth. She’d become a Protestant. He’d become a Protestant. And he’d first come to England in Edward IV’s reign, Edward VI’s reign. He was a friend of Cranmer, Archbishop Cranmer. And he had lodged with Immanuel Tremellius. I think we have a picture of Immanuel Tremellius, haven’t we? Can we see the next slide, please? Yes. Here you have Immanuel Tremellius. Who was he? His dates are 1510 to 1580. He was a professor of Hebrew at the University of Cambridge. He, in fact, was an Italian-Jewish convert. Conversion was always welcome in the church at this. It’s only later on that it turns into the notion of blood under antisemitism. Any Jew who converted was a prized figure. And please don’t forget that also, there was still the Domus Conversorum in London that had been set up in the reign of Henry III. And any Jew who choose to convert to Christianity was actually, were given a pension for life to stay there. That’s how important the Jews were theologically. So they’re not important in terms of the Reformation at all, but important to remember that they are there. And because they’re so central to theology, I think that’s why people are obsessed with the notion of the Jews to this day.

So Broughton comes to London. He spends a lot of time in study. He also engages in religious disputations with Catholics. He travels to Europe. And also he is involved in all sorts of disputations in Amsterdam with rabbis. And he also, later on, was instrumental in setting up the English Reform Church in Amsterdam. So we also know of other… There are other Jews. I don’t have portraits of them. I’m just going to mention a few. So it’s important that you know that there are Jews around at this time. Sir James Lancaster took with him a Jew from London to serve as a translator in one of the… He was an adventurer. Remember, this is the era of piracy. Except they weren’t really pirates because Elizabeth took a whole percent. They were Elizabeth’s pirates. Now, you needed translators. And there are quite a few of these merchants, these merchant adventurers, who take Jews with them as translators. And on another note, we know that the first man to set foot in the New World with Columbus was actually his navigator who was, in fact, a Jew. We also know that when Hugh Broughton was in Constantinople, or I should call it Istanbul, what was he doing there? He was forging relations, but also trying to convert the Muslims. And what he wanted to do was to, he wanted help from the Jews because what he wants to do is to help with the eastern trade. Look, if you think about it, England is gradually, after England breaks away from Catholicism, England is going to be free to really plough their own furrow. And what does that mean? This is the world opening up. Later on, of course, we are going to be getting to the era of the West India Company, the East India Company.

Don’t forget also the great British conquest. Now, this is when it all starts. So do you see how individual Jews who have many languages, this is the point, they’re going to be useful to these merchant adventurers? Now we also know that there was this handful of poor Jews in London. One of them, a man called Yehuda Menda, had been publicly converted at All Hallows Church by John Foxe, who was a very important writer. He’s famous for his books of martyrs. And he tells us of a sermon preached at the christening of a certain Jew that had become a Christian. So at his actual, at his baptism, there is a sermon. And this is the sermon that he gave. It’s extraordinary. This is John Foxe. Quoting, “Having been transported from out of the uttermost parts of Barbary into England and conversant enough amongst a space of five whole years before baptism.” Now, he speaks of the problem of being a Jew. This is Foxe. “They have heinous abominations, insatiable butcheries, treasons, frenzies, and madness.” Foxe also charged them with ritual murder. This is the speech he makes when he baptises a Jew. So important to remember that many of these stereotypes, and, of course, when David looked at “Merchant” with you and “Jew of Malta,” it’s important to, they’re still there. And that’s not going to go. Even John Donne, who Professor Pima’s going to be talking about at the weekend, this is in one of his sermons.

“Barbarous and inhuman customs of the Jews always keep in readiness the blood of some Christian, with which they anoint the body of any that dies amongst them with the words, ‘If Jesus Christ were the Messiah, then may the blood of this Christian avail thee to salvation.’” And many of the chronicles of the time are full of Jewish criminality. And this is Sir John Mandeville’s popular “Travels.” He was one of those adventurers who wrote down, he wrote travel books. And he warns also that the Jews are planning a military threat. And also with Puritanism, we come into the motion of the Christ and the anti-Christ, which is, of course, the Book of Revelations. Here you have William Brereton, who is going to be an important Puritan. He drops down his in, he goes to Amsterdam to the synagogue, “Jewish men in black insatiably given to women.” But remember that the majority of Elizabethans have never met a Jew in England. But something else is happening. As you have more and more as these merchant travellers, where are they travelling to? They’re going to Morocco, Turkey. They’re going to Antwerp, which has got a large Jewish population. I’m going to be talking about that later in the week. Venice, Amsterdam.

And it’s going to be an Amsterdam that the Jewish community really flourishes. And it’s these actual encounters that gradually rock the stereotype. Because I want to go back to something that I’ve already suggested to you. Never forget that when Max Nordau opened, the first Zionist Congress in 1879, what did he say? “There is only one country in the world which is free from the taint of antisemitism.” And that country is England. Now these words didn’t come out of anything. And don’t forget, in the 19th century, Benjamin Disraeli was prime minister. So Moses Montefiore was the favourite of the queen. Rothchild was the richest man in the world, dining at court. So by the time you get to the 19th century, it’s a very different image. And the point I want to make, England’s the first country to expel the Jews. And now they are coming back, not as Jews, but as conversos. But for the first time, there’s social contact between Englishmen and Jews, mainly with the merchant adventurers, which is going to begin to break the stereotype. And this is an interesting quote. An English merchant called John Sanderson, he actually found himself in what they called the Holy Land. And this is in the last year of the reign of Elizabeth. He’d met a Jew called Abraham Cohen. And this is what he writes about, ‘cause he writes memoirs. “He was shocked,” he said, “to discover his moral courage toward us. In understanding and honesty, the Jew was without company.”

So basically this is a Jew that is met and in the travelogue, he actually describes this is a very, very special man. Anyway, can we move on please? Can we move on slide-wise? So in Elizabeth’s reign. Thank you. Let’s keep that nice picture. Okay, in Elizabeth’s reign, what can we say? There weren’t that many. By the time we get to the period of the Spanish Armada, which is 1588, there’s probably about 100 Jews amongst the thousands of foreigners living in England, because London is becoming a great trading capital. Important to remember this. There’s going to be foreigners living in Bristol. It’s not just the ambassadors now. It’s traders. Remember what Napoleon once said of the English? “They’re a nation of shopkeepers.” Well, another wiser, I think a very wise person, said, “To understand the English, yes, they’re shopkeepers, but they’re also adventurers.” Elizabeth was a pragmatist. What is most important to England, is creating an empire and becoming a great centre of trade. This is wealth. And that is why it’s one of the reasons that England is going to actually welcome the Jews in. Now we know that the conversos, remember they get out under Mary. Those who come back. They’re mainly agents for some of the great Portuguese trading houses.

For example, Diego Mendes, who we’ve already talked about him before. He married Dona Gracia. We know that Dona Gracia and her nephew, the Duke of Naxos, came to London. They already had this huge trading empire based in Portugal. And it’s later on when they finally make it to Istanbul that they come out as Jews. But they have their agents in London. And we know also that they practise their faith in secret. Outwardly, they went to the Portuguese church in London, and they practised their religion in secret. And we know because the Spanish and the Portuguese ambassadors at court, they make a lot of complaints about these merchants who outwardly attend Catholic services, but they meet to observe Yom Kippur and Passover. So we have records of these kind of complaints. And so it’s important to remember them. Now before I get on to Dr. Henry Nunes, I would like to talk about something else, a play by a man called Robert Wilson. Now, we all know what Professor Pima’s talked about when he talked about “The Jew of Malta,” which is really Barabas the devil. Was it based on someone I’m going to talk about soon? Or was it based, of course, on the Duke of Naxos? And, of course, “The Merchant of Venice.” However, there was a very interesting, not very popular playwright called Robert Wilson. And he wrote a play called “Three Ladies of London.”

It was actually about usury and it was very unusual because it gives a Philosemitic slant. He was an actor and he, in 1581… In 1571, Elizabeth had passed an act limiting the loaning of money at huge interest. And this is, remember, Christians lending to Christians. That act was about to expire in 1581 and that’s why the play was written. And who were the three ladies of London? They are Love, and Conscience, and Lucre. Lady Lucre, Lady Money, gains control over the other two with the help of dissimulation, fraud, simony, and usury. And then into the play comes the Levantine Jewish money lender called Gerontius. He’s a completely supporting character, but the point is, he is portrayed as the honest Jewish businessman and a generous moral person, diametrically opposed to the standard image of the Jew. And it’s an Italian-Christian merchant who is the economic villain. And it’s fascinating 'cause it’s kind of turning “Merchant of Venice” on the head. And Gerontius is shocked by Mercadorus’s assertion that he would convert to Islam to avoid repayment. This is what the Italian says. “In order to not pay, I will even become a Muslim.” Now, let’s talk about Dr. Nunes. He was the head of the, he was actually the head of the Jewish community in London. He was a merchant. And what is interesting about him. Can we go on please to the next slide? That’s him. This is an interesting portrait of him. And you can see that he is dressed just like an English noble. Can we go on please? Because he is a noble, remember? He’s living that life and he is… Can we go on please? He’s still practising . He’s a converso, but he is a secret Jew.

Now, Sir Francis Walsingham. Who is so Francis Walsingham? I’m painting a picture here. Those of you who enjoyed Helen Fry’s brilliant lecture last night on spies, Sir Francis Walsingham is the first of the great spies. He creates an incredible spy network to keep Elizabeth safe. Remember all the plots against Elizabeth’s life, the Catholic plots. And, think about it, Jewish merchants secretly Catholic, they would hate Spain, they would hate Portugal. And Hector Nunes enjoyed the trust of both Walsingham and Cecil. And what is fascinating, it was he, forget all the romantic stuff, it was he who brought the news to Walsingham about the arrival of the Armada to Lisbon. He’s a merchant. He’s got a fleet of ships. And also they’re not just conversos, you know? Hector Nunes, he’s a very, very wealthy man. And what he does is he provides the small Bristol community with Jewish calendars and Jewish literature. One of the problems of the conversos, is Judaism a religion of knowledge? Well, yes it is. If you don’t know the Jewish calendar, if you don’t have the prayer books, if you don’t have the rabbinic literature, how on earth can you survive as Jews? You know, if you think of those fascinating stories of parts of Spain and the Canary Islands where they have discovered that women light candles in secret in their cellars. This is 500 years after the Inquisition, after the expulsion. Obviously this is all that’s memory because Judaism is a religion where you need knowledge.

And consequently, we know that this man, who is a spy for Walsingham, he’s also an important merchant, and he understands the importance of making sure that Britain knew when, in fact, the Armada was setting off. Now, can we come onto the next. Sorry, can you go back a minute because I want… No, leave him there. All right. I want to talk a little bit more about Nunes because we wanted to find out quite a bit about him. He was born in Portugal, and we know that his parents had been forcibly converted. Now, his story’s fascinating because he received both his bachelor’s and masters in medical degree in a Portuguese university in Coimbra, one of the most important Portuguese universities in Lisbon. Because he’s a converso, he is outwardly a Catholic. And he first comes to England, the first news we have of him, when he goes to the home of his uncle, Dr. Henrique Nunes and his aunt, Beatrice Fernandez. Conversos usually married conversos. He comes to England in 1546. He is a doctor and he begins to practise medicine, but he hasn’t got a certificate from the Royal College of Physicians. So they report him. And for a while, he treats the poor illegally, but then he realises he’s got to do something. So in order to maintain himself, he becomes a merchant. And through his converso contacts, he sets up this incredible, you know, really this incredible network to and from the Iberian Peninsula to London. And Lord Burghley, he becomes chief minister to Elizabeth. Burghley and Walsingham are the two most important figures in Elizabethan England in terms really of the government of England. Lord Burghley is the 1st Lord Cecil, a very important family in England that have given so much to the British in terms of civil servants, ministers, et cetera.

And that is Lord Burghley. And biographies of these characters are always very, very interesting. He became involved with Hector Nunes’ family because he was the family doctor. And Burghley took a personal interest in his affairs. And in return for him looking after him, his family helped the British. And to actually be able to confirm the preparation for the Spanish Armada is very important. And before that, in 1569, Burghley supported his petition re: merchants trading with Spain. Because what happened was he wanted some of his co-religionists, conversos though, to be able to trade. And think of the suspicion between Spain and England. And Burghley makes sure that two of his associates were able to be involved in the trade. So Lord Burghley, Walsingham, Nunes isn’t the only one. There are some of these important merchants who are incredibly useful to the British. Because, don’t forget, in 1588, Philip II launches the Armada against England. Philip II, who had been married to beg your pardon, to Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon. He actually led a holy war against Elizabeth. The story behind that is… There are many plots against Elizabeth’s life. That’s why Walsingham in particular was so very important. The centre of Catholic dissent in England was Mary Queen of Scots. She had fled her Calvinist country, John Knox and Calvinism, to England.

Her cousin, Elizabeth, put her up in a castle but wouldn’t let her out. So she’s the centre of Catholic dissent. Those of you who love history, she had previously been married to the eldest son of Catherine de’ Medici. Do you see how it all comes together? These incredibly influential women. And she was the centre of plot. And in the end, Elizabeth is persuaded to execute her. Now, to execute a Catholic queen, that meant that a holy war could then be launched. And Philip launches the holy war with the blessing of the Pope. And England has to stop it. And of course, part of it was done through intelligence and also, of course, the incredible bravery of the English fleet. And I’m sure many of you will have read books about it or would have seen the many, many films about it, the little fire ships. And it’s fascinating, is it not, that Jewish informers were involved in all of this? So now we come on to the next character. Probably the most famous converso. Now, I’m sorry, that is not his picture. Can you go on? I beg your pardon. I couldn’t find a picture of him. I should mention also two other characters who are going to come into this story. That’s going to be Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. So let’s go on. So Roderigo Lopes, who I haven’t got a picture of. His dates are 1517. No, that is not him. I’m terribly sorry. I got the wrong picture. Roderigo Lopes, his dates are 1517 to 1594. Again, he lived a very long life. He was born into a converso family. His father, Antonio, was chief physician to John III of Portugal. If those of you who’ve been studying with me or know that they were part of the coerced baptism of 1497. Again, he was also educated at the University of Coimbra, which, again, he took a degree in medicine.

And we know that he got his doctorate in 1544. After the Inquisition was established in Portugal, it was still dangerous. It was too dangerous. These characters, look, there’s been a lot of work done on the conversos. Some of them became religious Christians, some of them went into the church, some of them married into the aristocracy of Spain and Portugal. But this particular family, he practised his Judaism in secret. After the death of Queen Mary, the fanatical Catholic, he settled in England, he changed his name to Roger, and he set up practise in London. He became a physician at St Bartholomew’s Hospital And St Bartholomew’s Hospital, of course, very, very interesting. And he becomes one of the most important doctors at the hospital. And he is described by a colleague. “Lopes shows himself to be both careful and very skillful in his counsel, his dieting, purging, and bleeding.” As Williams said yesterday, “If you wanted a doctor, it was much more sensible to have a Jewish doctor or a Muslim doctor.” In 1563 Lopes marries Sarah, who’s the eldest daughter of another converso, a man called Dunstan Anes, another merchant who’d also settled in London in 1540. By this time, there’s about 100 converso families. They’re outwardly Anglican, this particular branch, but he’s secretly practising Judaism. They had six children, four boys and two girls. They were all baptised in the hospital precinct of St. Bartholomew’s. We know that Lopez’s brother lived with them in Holborn.

And another brother, Diego, was a merchant in Antwerp and in Venice. They also have a lot of money through their merchanting. Now, Lopes develops a very large practise. He’s a very good doctor and who becomes one of his patients but Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester? Also Sir Francis Walsingham. Robert Dudley was the favourite of Queen Elizabeth in the early part of her reign. He was the nearest she ever came to wanting to marry. Unfortunately, he had a wife and her death is very mysterious. He stays as a courtier. So he’s a very important figure at court. And, important to remember, he has Lopes as his doctor. And he also becomes the physician-in-chief to Elizabeth I. So he works his way up. He starts as a doctor at the hospital. He achieves an incredible reputation. And then what happens to him? Robert Dudley, then introduction to the Queen, and he becomes her chief doctor. And he gets an awful lot of grants for it. In 1584, he’s granted the monopoly on the import of aniseed and sumac. Both were used, of course, in medical practise. And this also gives us a notion of how far the merchant ships are travelling. The aniseed was native to both the Eastern Mediterranean and Southwest Asia. I want you to think now in terms of, you know, the circumference of the globe and the growth of English merchantism as opposed to the Spanish and Portuguese.

In 1588, he becomes a real favourite. He’s given land in Worcestershire. Can we see the next slide, please? Here you have Gabriel Harvey. He was very important English scholar. He was Master of Trinity College, and Robert Dudley was his protector. But this is what he wrote about Lopes. “Dr. Lopes, the queen’s physician, is descended of Jews, but himself a Christian and Portugal. He’s learned and an expert in court, but one that makes a great account of himself as the best, by a kind of Jewish practise has grown to too much wealth.” So he’s also has his enemies. And he works, he goes on to say that he works with the greatest lords and ladies. So having said that there’s a more positive image than Jew, you still get the notion that Jews can be poisoners. Now, in 1584, remember the problems between the Catholics and the Protestants. There’s some very important Catholic families. A Catholic pamphlet denounced the Earl of Leicester and stated, quote unquote, “The Jew Lopes was one of the Earl’s agents for poisoning and for the art of destroying children in women’s bellies.” Now, Lopes, along with Nunes, was very useful to Walsingham. He had many languages. He spoke seven languages fluently and think about the war with Spain. Think about the Armada. Lopes was a very important member of this circle of exiles. And not only that, he has the queen’s confidence and he becomes an intermediary with a man called Dom Antonio, who was a claimant to the Portuguese throne. He was staying in England near Windsor Castle. And, of course, because Spain and Portugal are the enemies of Elizabeth, Lopes is very important as an intermediary. Elizabeth is backing this claimant. And we know that in 1590, Lopes approached the Spanish ambassador in Paris, a man called Don Bernardino de Mendoza, to try an open peace negotiations. This is Walsingham. It’s after the Armada. What about peace negotiations? And we know that the Spanish ambassador gave Lopes a ring worth 100 pounds for Lopes’s daughter.

And we also know, even though Walsingham dies, Lopes continued negotiating. Now, there’s absolutely no real evidence that Lopes ever conspired against England. But Edgar Samuel, who is the best biographer on Lopes, actually said he acted stupidly because, in a way, he’s become too grand. By the early 1590s, he’s riding so high. He’s in court circles. You know, in a way, he’s very much become the court Jew, even though he’s outwardly Christian. He has a very comfortable home in Holborn and he sends his youngest son to Winchester School, but he makes a dangerous enemy. Can we see the next picture, please? The next one please, Lauren. Here you have him. Robert Devereux, the Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeth’s Achilles heel. He was born in 1565. He’s executed in 1601. He is the dashing nobleman that the ageing Queen Elizabeth, the wonderfully astute woman who managed to walk the world. Can you imagine what it was like to be a queen? She couldn’t marry a foreign prince because of all the problems it would leave. She couldn’t marry an English nobleman. She kept England safe and secure and really set the tone for the creation of really the greatest empire of all time. Robert Devereux, the handsome young man, 30 years younger than Elizabeth. She falls madly and passionately in love with him. And he becomes a terrible enemy of Lopes because he actually told a Spanish statesman, a man called Perez, that he had treated Essex for venereal disease. Perez, who’s the Spanish nobleman, informed Essex, who, of course, wants revenge. So what he does, he begins to try to implicate Lopes as a fifth columnist in the pay of Philip II. At first Burghley and Elizabeth thought it was absolutely absurd. But in 1593, Essex found secret letters from one of Dom Antonio’s former supporters. Remember, Dom Antonio?

The Spaniard who he had first negotiated with. Lopes’ courier was arrested and, under torture, he implicated Lopes. What happens is that gradually Essex manages to ratchet it all up. They use torture. And what is believed is that Lopez is in the pay of the Spanish. He’s arrested, he’s held at Essex House. When threatened with torture, he confesses, but he then recants. And what was also revealed is that he had made secret donations to a synagogue in Antwerp. He’s put on trial. The prosecutor, Sir Edward Coke, who was considered the greatest jurist in Elizabethan England, denounced Lopes. He called him, “A perjured murdering villain and a Jewish doctor, worse than Judas himself, not a new Christian, but a very Jew.” He was convicted of high treason and given a death sentence. Now, historians have combed this. There is no evidence that he was a spy. He went too far. He walked the world a little too far. I mean, how many people in their lives are not guilty of that? Anyway, it took the queen three months to sign the death warrant. But in the end, she does sign. And when Lopes is taken off for execution, he actually declared that he loved the queen as well as he loved Jesus Christ. And the crowd roared with laughter because was this man a Christian, or was here Jew? What is interesting though is that his widow, Sarah, petitioned Elizabeth to be allowed to keep his estate. Although the queen kept the ring that had been given to his daughter, she did return the estate to the wife. And in addition, she granted the son, Anthony, 30 pounds an annum to support him at Winchester School. A letter written by a Spanish diplomat who was the Spanish ambassador and Spain’s leading expert on English affairs. This is a letter to Philip III, Philip II’s son. “The King, our master, had never conceived nor approved such measures.

Moreover, it is understood that Dr. Lopes never passed through our thoughts because he was a friend of the queen and a bad Christian.” You see, if you think about it, why on earth would a converso, even if he had converted, want anything to do with the people who had destroyed really his family and his people? But I think it’s an interesting story to tell you of the man who flew too high and who fell. And what I’m going to switch to soon is we are going to look really at the growth of the Jewish community in Amsterdam, because that is where it’s going to switch to. And then from the community in Amsterdam, the converso community that is going to come out as Jews, that is when they’re going to return to England. So that’s the plan. Anyway, I hope you found that interesting and it kind of tied up with what William had been talking about, because what we are trying to do, is William gives you the spine, I then come in with the Jewish history. So let’s have a look and let’s have a look at the questions.

Q&A and Comments:

Oh, it was Hans Holbein who painted Anne of Cleves, not… Yes, of course, Margaret, I can be.

Q: “How did Henry VII consult rabbis if there were no Jews in England?”

A: Letters to Italy.

Q: “Was the title of the painting, When Did You Last See Your Father?”

A: Yes, three men and a boy. Yes. No, not the painting there.

Q: “Remind us whose daughter Elizabeth I was.”

A: And Vicky, that’s what I love about this group. Yes, Vicky. It was Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Judith,

Q: “Since the Jews were expelled in 1290 and returned under Cromwell in 1656, can you explain how Shakespeare wrote plays about Jews when there were no Jews living in England?”

A: Well, I think David Piemer talked a lot about that. Shakespeare was not original. It was based on an Italian story. You see, the stereotype of the Jew, you don’t need Jews in England. You see, Jews are so important to Christianity. That’s the point. Don’t forget, also, there was “The Jew of Malta,” and there was also The Second Nun’s Tale in “The Canterbury Tales.”

Oh, this is from Judith. Oh, I do love Lockdown. “My ancestor was named Nunes. The family came to England in the 17th century from Holland. We have a family tree.” That is wonderful. “We must never forget the English are enamoured by the Arabs and Bedouins. I called the Middle East missed. And before the World War II, they prevented saving many numbers of Jews from Europe because they didn’t want to upset the Arabs.”

Carol, yes, but that’s a very, very important point that needs a lot more elaboration than one question. It’s complicated. I always use that phrase. Yes, the upsetting of the Arabs, it was about British interests first. And certainly in 1939, in fact, Chamberlain actually basically said, you know, we can’t afford to upset the Arabs because the Mufti of Jerusalem, the leader of the Arab world, had basically said, if you don’t stop Jewish immigration now, I’m going to act in a way that’s against your interests. And if you think about the First World War, the British had stirred up trouble against the Turks. So, you know.

Q: “How does that sit with English democracy and freedom?”

A: Aha. The other side of England, Perfidious Albion. England is complicated to understand. “Agree.

Q: How come the British left their weapons to the Arabs in 1948?”

A: Rochelle, we are going to talk about ‘45 to '48. I promise you. It wasn’t quite as simple as that. Please don’t forget the between '45 and '48, sections of the Jewish world in Palestine went to war with the British. Perhaps they were justified. But from a British point of view, groups like the Irgun and the Lehi declared war on them. Many of you might agree with that. So I don’t want to get into that too deeply. It’s important.

Q: “So did the conversos keep their Jewish books secret? What would’ve happened to them if they’d been found out?”

A: Under Elizabeth, probably kicked out. Nothing more. Elizabeth really was pragmatic. And don’t forget, people like Dona Gracia, they set up printing presses. You know, after the invention of the printing press, it was much easier to disseminate knowledge. And many of the conversos had ships. You know, when I mentioned Bristol to you, ships would’ve landed with books on it. It’s important to remember that the spread of knowledge. If you don’t have the knowledge, how do you know how to practise?

Oh, the wardrobe design. Yes, the way they dressed. It’s wonderful. And think also, you know, if you want to understand the trade, think of the silks, think of the velvets, you know, think of the kind of merchanting you needed for these kind of products. And later on, particularly in Amsterdam, you’re going to see what an important part the Jews are going to play in mercantilism. You know, in the end, the pragmatic Dutch, and later on the pragmatic British, said, we need these people. They’re useful. I think, in the end, it’s as simple as that. When you look at anti-Judaism and the role that the Jews fulfil in Western, in monotheistic society, it is a fascination. That’s one of the reasons Wendy and I decided we were going to go a bit backwards into history. So to understand today, it’s very important to try and understand the past. And to understand the Jews. I mean, what’s that quote? “There are no people more difficult to understand than the Jews.” To understand the Jews, you really do have to go back into history.

Oh, this is Brian Conway. “Recommended reading. 'The Double Life of Dr. Lopez’ by Dominic Green. And if you can get it, ‘The Case of Dr. Lopez.’ John Gwyer.” Oh, that’s interesting, Brian.

I love having you all. Margaret, people are liking it.

Q: “Why did Elizabeth get it? Did Elizabeth have him executed?”

A: Yes, Sharon. He went too high. He wanted to take the crown, basically.

Q: “Can you interview a British writer who wrote…”

A: That’s not finished, Diane. I don’t know what you’re saying.

Rose. Thank you very much, Rose. Oh yes. “There’s a wonderful opera by Donizetti, Roberto Devereux.” You see again, what I said about Lopes would just as easily apply to the Earl of Essex. He thought he was unstoppable. What is it? The story of the Greeks? Hubris. Nemesis. Catharsis. He went to some…

Yes, Sandra. Thank you very much, Sandra. “If you look at the records of the Port of London Authority, it seems that Jewish merchants, possibly conversos, were trading during this period. And the evidence comes through discrepancies in deliveries.” That’s interesting.

“This is possibly where Shakespeare would’ve heard of Jews, if not directly. Through beer hall chats where merchants may have discussed how the Jews shortchange them.” Yes, of course. This negative stereotype. Thank you, Sandra.

Oh, Diana, “The Dressmakers of Auschwitz.” I heard her recently. She’s very interesting about the history of textiles, right?

This hasn’t given the name. “My surname is Rogers, changed by my late in-laws from Rodriguez, originally from Portugal I’m told. My husband’s grandmother’s passport was still in the name of Rodriguez.” That’s from Marcel Rogers. Yes. It’s fascinating, isn’t it? I believe my mother’s branch of the family were conversos because we managed to trace them to Holland in 1649 and that branch in England in 1743, I think it was. And that is the traditional converso route. So obviously they must have practised Judaism in secret from the time of… Because evidently they would’ve come from Portugal, from Spain to Portugal. So they would’ve had to have practised Judaism in secret for nearly 100 years.

“Andrea Gondos recently published a book about the dissemination of the Kabbalah to Christians via the printing press from the 16th century.” Yes, of course, the Christians become fascinated by Kabbalah and numerology. Don’t forget, in the Book of Revelation, 666 is the sign of the beast. You’re going to get messianic fervour, particularly with the Puritans. It’s going to be tied up with the Jews coming back to England. It’s a fascinating subject, Abigail. The Christians needed, they believed that 1666 was the time of the Second Coming. A thousand years pursuit of the millennium plus 666. Can you imagine what it must have been like when London burnt down, the Fire of London? And Kabbalah, of course, the esoteric path. Look, even Elizabeth, her doctor, her doctor was an alchemist. The magic of the Jews, numerology. Now, there’s a huge difference between serious Kabbalah and, of course, the kind that was probably disseminated, I think. Jeremy Rosen knows a lot about this.

This is Valerie. “A branch of the Lopes family settled in Devon. Wanted to integrate with English aristocracy and one of the family became Lord Roborough. I have the Lopes Megillat Esther, found in a Devon junk shop.” Oh, Valerie, that is amazing.

Oh God, I love this Lockdown. You find out things that you never read in the books.

Q: Yes, of course they wanted to be aristocrats. Is that the one of the weaknesses of the Jews?

A: I don’t know. I mean, remember that letter of Lord Rothschild’s, the parents, at JFS at the turn of the century? He said, “Don’t let them go to Haber. Let them go onto the playing fields.” You know, we can be seduced too. You can be seduced by England, seduced by France, seduced by whatever country you live. Remember the culture can be marvellous. And to be an aristocrat. What is the reality of it all?

Q: “Why was Essex executed?”

A: I hoped I’d answered that. For treason, basically. He tried to take the crown.

“They were needed, but very dispensable.” Yeah, they were useful. And when they weren’t useful, they were dispensable. Yes. That’s pragmatic England, “Henry VIII,”

this is from Michael, “had a copy of the Talmud brought to England to help him re: his divorce. I believe the Talmud is still in the Royal Library.” That’s lovely, Michael. I love that.

“Does one have to understand the Jews?” I love that. No, no, of course. We don’t want to. We don’t understand. Remember Elias Canetti’s quote in his book, “Crowds and Power,” “There are no people more difficult to understand than the Jews.” “Have studies been made as to the converso experience affecting the practise of Judaism after they returned to the ancestral religion?”

Ronnie, I’m going to be talking about that when I talk about Amsterdam.

Oh, this is from Rochelle. Lovely. “I remember a JFS, Dr. Conway, saying, ‘We are making English citizens from Yiddish-speaking families.’” Yeah.

This is from Marin. “I learned about the conversos in New Mexico on a Rhode Scholar trip.” Yes. You see, you know, the last heretic, in inverted commas, to be burnt at the stake in Mexico was in the, I think it was 1728. The Inquisition followed the Spanish and Portuguese colonists. So of course converso… Jews were not affected by the Inquisition, but conversos were because they were outwardly Christian.

Anyway, I think that’s all the questions. So I wish you all goodnight. Hi, Wendy.

• Thanks, Trudy. Hi. Thank you for that outstanding presentation, as always. So yes. Thank you to all our participants.

• Take care. Bye.

• Thanks for joining us. Night night.

• God bless.

• Bye bye.